From Religious Books:
Jain Worship: A Critical View1
by Late Dr. Jagdishchandra Jain
Dr. Jagdishchandra Jain was a renowned scholar of religion and philosophy. In the present article, Dr. Jain has presented a historical perspective on the origin of worship and some other rituals in the Jain system. The learned scholar has also described the fundamental principles of Jainism. We should examine our religious celebrations in the light of these fundamentals. It is hoped that the present article will guide us to reform Jain worships and celebrations, and to make them more meaningful. - D. C. J.
Emotion plays a very important role in life. Joy, sorrow, reverence, hate or love are the outcome of emotional feelings involving physiological changes. A man's mind is full of quest; again and again the restless mind peeps out, ever seeking, ever questioning: What is the ultimate goal? What is the ultimate reality? How are we born? Why is there death? Thus begins the investigation of Brahma (the supreme universal spirit).
Shankaracharya, a great exponent of the philosophy of non-dualism (ADVAIT VEDANTA), maintained that the only ultimate reality is Brahma, the Absolute. He believed in the identity of spirit and matter. According to this school of thought, only Brahma is true, the world is false. It is on account of ignorance (AVIDYA) or illusion (MAYA) that we can not achieve emancipation from worldly existence, which is known to be full of suffering.2
It seems that man is rarely satisfied with abstract subtleties, existing only as mental concepts (such as ignorance and illusion resulting in worldly suffering). He wants something concrete, solid, definite and well-defined so that he can fall back upon and continue aspiring for his objective. This task was accomplished by theologians like Ramanuja (1037-1137 A.D.) Madhava (13th century A.D.) and Nimbarka (12th century A.D.). Ramanuja preached intense devotion to God, asserting that the devotee is a fragment of God and that he has to depend on Him for his emancipation.
The Cult of Devotion in Medieval India:
The period from 13th or 14th century to the 17th or 18th century A.D. is considered of great significance in Indian religious history. Buddhism had ceased to exercise its influence, and as Alberuni, a Moslem traveler of the 11th century, has noted: 'the Aryans, who felt very proud of their learning, caste, religion and their race, turned to be conservative and self-conceited.' Besides, rivalry and conflict were growing between the rulers of the petty states in India. The Hindus strived vigorously to resist the spread of Islam in India. This produced a galaxy of medieval saints such as Surdas, Tulsidas, Mirabai, Guru Nanak and Narsi Mehta. Now religion was not confined to knowledge (JNAAN) but it also reaffirmed devotion (BHAKTI), adoration, glorification and paying homage to God.
Jain Worship (PUJA):
The cult of devotion had a great impact on Jainism and Buddhism. Both do not hold that God is the creator, preserver and annihilator of this universe. According to Jainism, God (or Gods &endash; SIDDHAs) is free from attachment and aversion, is not eternal3 and omnipresent, is not involved in doing or undoing things at will; therefore, really speaking, devotion towards Him can not lead to liberation. The eminent Jain acharya, Vattakera (circa 2nd century A.D.), in his work MOOLAACHAAR states: A saint who, out of his devotion to God JIN, wishes freedom from birth and death, achievement of enlightenment and preservation of auspicious thoughts at the time of peaceful death (SAMAADHI MARAN), does not do it as a reward to his penitential act, but his devotional language should be considered as a false speech.4 Almost the same idea has been conveyed by Samantabhadra (5th century A.D.) in his APTAMEEMAANSA. Describing the attributes of JIN, the scholarly acharya writes: O Venerable One, you are not great because people associate you with supernatural qualities such as the arrival of heavenly beings, movement in the sky, waiving of fly-whisks and other manifestations of power; such qualities are noticed even among illusionists &endash; those who perform magical feats. You are great since you are free from vices like ignorance and delusion that obscure the real nature of things, and you have been able to eliminate your external and internal impurities. You are one who is free from ignorance, attachment and aversion, whose teachings are logical &endash; conforming to reason, and the knowledge elucidated by you is beneficial, free from contradictions and compatible with conspicuous observations and experiences.5
Rituals Accepted By Jains:
We have seen that in fact there is no place for devotion (BHAKTI) or worship (POOJA) in the Jain religion. Yet the impact of the cult of devotion was so great that Jainism could not remain without adoration, chanting hymns, paying homage, counting rosary and making salutations to TEERTHANKARs and other religious personalities. In Jainism the ARHANT (worthy of worship), the SIDDHA (liberated soul), the SADHU (monk) and the DHARM (religion) preached by an omniscient are considered the four auspicious entities (MANGALs) and the four supreme entities (LOKOTTAMs). So prayer to twenty-four TEERTHANKARs, salutations to JIN &endash; ARHANTs and SIDDHAs, and to those who excel in austerities, scriptural knowledge and virtues were deemed among the six obligatory duties (six essentials for householders).6 Acharya Vattakera, in MOOLAACHAAR, has included prayer and salutations among the six essentials. In PANCHAASTIKAAYASAAR, Acharya Kundkund writes: A person who has reverence and devotion towards ARHANT, SIDDHA, images of TEERTHANKARs (CHAITYA) and religious discourse (PRAVACHAN) invariably obtains meritorious karma. However, (it should be noted that) this does not bring about shedding of karma.7
The period from the 9th century to the 12th century A.D. was very important from the point of view of various changes that were taking place in the code of conduct for householders. It was a time when rituals were gaining prominence in place of the basic principles of religion. People were looking for various forms and manners of performing divine services; as a result, the codes of ceremony and performance of rites were gaining popularity. To this end, some Jain scholars developed elaborate details of prayer and worship. For instance, Jinasen II (9th century A.D.), in AADIPURAAN, has described the six essentials in detail. A variety of worships for different occasions were introduced by different acharyas. Somadevasuri, a contemporary of Jinasen II, was greatly influenced by Brahminic rituals as is evident from his work entitled UPAASAKAADHYAYAN in which he has described AACHAMAN (sipping of water from the palm of the hand), HOMA (making an oblation to gods by casting clarified butter into fire) and BHUTABALI (offering of food and other things to all creatures). Somadevasuri has also described DEVAPOOJA (worship of the worthy) including the procedure for ABHISHEK (consecration ceremony) and the details of various types of worships. Other acharyas have prescribed somewhat different procedures of worship consisting of invocation (AAHAVAAN), installation (STHAAPANA), request to stay (SANNIDHIKARAN), main worship and dispersion at the end of the ceremony (VISARJAN). Needless to say that since JIN is VEETARAAG, beyond attachment and aversion, such formalities and procedures are not applicable in Jainism. The consecration ceremony (ABHISHEK) of JIN with five kinds of divine liquids (PANCHAAMRIT - milk, sugarcane juice, clarified butter, curds and water) seems to indicate the influence of Vedic rituals on the contemporary Jain authors. It should be pointed out that the acharyas who prescribed the various procedures for worship were particular that their conduct remained inviolable and their beliefs in the basic tenets of Jainism unshakable. Somadevasuri writes: Where there is no loss of rationalism (SAMYAKTVA) and where there is no violation of the vows, the local custom (LAUKIK VIDHI) prevails.8
Guardian Deities (SHAASAN DEV):
In the 10th century A.D., the YAKSHAs and YAKSHIs9 came into prominence due to the cult of devotion of the followers of Siva and Vishnu. According to tradition, JIN does not need any protection from anybody as no harm could be done to Him at any stage. Yet each TEERTHANKAR is said to have been attended by a YAKSHA and YAKSHI. Thus guardian deities such as Chakreshwari (for Rishabhadev), Padmavati (for Parshvanath), Brahmadev (for Sheetalnath) and Ambika (for Neminath) were instated.10 These deities became so popular that they were believed to fulfill earthly desires of their devotees. It appears that in due course of time, the worship of the guardian deities gained such popularity that they were considered equal to TEERTHANKARs. Commenting on this trend, Somadevasuri writes:11
One who considers JIN, the knower of the entire universe, and the demigods (VYANTAR DEVs) equal in showing reverence, heads downwards spiritually. These demigods have been conceived just for the defense of Jainism. Therefore, individuals with the right vision show reverence towards them just by offering partial oblation.
Conclusion:
The question remains as to why the sentiment of devotion was introduced in Jainism when VEETARAAG JIN, being beyond attachment and aversion, was unable to show any favor to his devotees. The probable answer is: If Jainism was to be made popular (in medieval times), and if people were to proselytize,12 it could scarcely have avoided contact with other systems of religion, and particularly with those who were converted and were to exercise their influence in shaping Jainism. It is in this manner that perhaps a religion or a set of culture remains dynamic.
Footnotes:
1. Adapted from the book entitled 'Studies In Early Jainism' by Dr. Jagdishchandra Jain, published by Navrang, New Delhi, 1992, pages 172-180.
We are grateful to Dr. Jagdishchandra Jain's son, Shri Anil J. Jain, for his kind permission to adapt this article.
2. Although, on the basis of the doctrine of relativism (SYAADAVAAD), Jainism does not believe that only Brahma is true and all else is false, we do believe that irrationalism (which is similar to ignorance) and delusion (illusion) are the root causes of our sufferings. - D. C. J. Back up
3. Although soul is eternal, a soul becomes SIDDHA by eliminating one's karma. Thus SIDDHA (God) is not eternal. - D. C. J.
4. AAROGABOHILAABHAM DINTU SAMMAHIM CHA ME JINAVARIND |
KIN NA HU NIDAANMEYAM NAVARI VIBHAASETTH KAAYAVVA ||
BHAASA ASACHCHAMOSA NAVARI HU BHATTEEYA BHAASIDA ESA |
NA HU KHEENARAAGADOSA DINTI SAMAAHIM CHA BOHIM CHA ||
5. DEVAAGAM-NABHOYAAN-CHAAMARAADI-VIBHOOTAYAH |
MAAYAAVISHVAPI DRISHYANTE NAATASTVAMASI NO MAHAAN | 1 |
DOSHAAVARANAYORHAANIRNISHSHESHAASTYATISHAAYANAAT |
KVACHIDYATHA SVAHETUBHYO BAHIRANTARMALKSHAYAH | 4 |
SA TVAMEVAASI NIRDOSHO YUKTISHAASTRAVIRODHIVAAK |
AVIRODHO YADISHTAM TE PRASIDDHEN NA BAADHYATE | 6 |
6. For details, please see Studies In Jainism: Reader 1, lesson 23, pages 79-83.
- D. C. J.
7. ARAHANTASIDDHACHEDIYAPAVAYANAGANANAANABHATTISAMPANNO |
BANDHADI PUNNAM BAHUSO NA HU SO KAMMAKKHAYAM KUNADI |166 |
It should be pointed out that Acharya Kundkund did not prescribe any ritualistic procedures for prayers, salutations and worship. - D. C. J.
8. SARVA EVA HI JAIANAANAAM PRAMAANAM LAUKIKO VIDHIH |
YATRA SAMYAKTVA HAANIRNA YATRA NA VRATADOOSHANAM | 34-480|
9. Male and female figures that were initially adopted as decorations of TEERTHANKAR's idol. Later they were deemed as guardian deities. - D. C. J.
10. Some guardian deities such as Kshetrapal and Bhairav were introduced for places of pilgrimages as well. - D. C. J.
11. DEVAM JAGATRAYI NETRAM VYANTARAADYAASHCHA DEVATA |
SAMAM POOJA VIDHAANESHU PASHYAN DOORAM VRAJEDADHAH | 39-697 |
TAAH SHAASANAADHIRAKSHAARTH KALPITAAH PARAMAAGAME |
ATO YAJNAANSHADAANEN MAANANEEYAAH SUDRISHTIBHIH | 39-698 |
12. Although proselytizing does not conform to the basic tenets of Jainism, some individuals engaged in it to increase their following. - D. C. J.
Sunday, June 14, 2009
Saturday, June 13, 2009
Subclasses Of Karma Selections from UTTARAADHYAYAN SUTRA
Quotations From Scriptures:
Subclasses Of Karma
Selections from UTTARAADHYAYAN SUTRA1
Synopsis
There are four aspects of the bondage of karmic particles:2
1. Nature, kind or class, which describes the kind of effect the karmas may have on the living being
2. Quantity of karma particles
3. Duration for which the karma particles will remain associated with the soul
4. Intensity of fruition
According to their nature, karmas are categorized into eight classes:
Knowledge-obscuring, perception-obscuring, feeling-producing, deluding, life-span-determining, physique-determining, status-determining and obstructing.
In the January and April 1998 issues, the eight classes of karmas and their interrelationships were presented. Further, reasons for placing the eight types of karmas in the above sequence were discussed.
The Jain scriptures have described various subclasses of the eight types of karmas. The following quotations from UTTARAADHYAYAN SUTRA, Chapter 33, present these subclasses of karmas.
Karmas and their influence on soul:
ATTHA KAMMAAIM VOCHCHHAAMI AANUPUVVIM JAHAKKAMAM
JEHI BADDHO AYAM JEEVO SAMSAARE PARIVATTAE |1|
Describing eight main classes of karmas,
successively, in proper order;
a worldly soul, bound by these karmas,
suffers through cycles of birth and death.
Explanation: There are eight main classes of karmas. Their sequence, presented in the next two couplets, is determined by the manner in which they interact with soul.3 A worldly soul continually accumulates some karmas and sheds other karmas on account of its activities of body, speech and mind coupled with passions of anger, pride, intrigue and greed. These interactions between soul and karmas cause a worldly soul to suffer through cycles of birth and death.
Eight main classes of karmas:
NAANASSAAVARANIJJAM DANSANAAVARANAM TAHA
VEYANIJJAM TAHA MOHAM AAUKAMMAM TAHEV YA |2|
NAAMAKAMMAM CHA GOYAM CHA ANTARAAYAM TAHEV YA
EVAMEYAAI KAMMAAIM ATTHEV U SAMAASAO |3|
Eight main classes of karmas are:
knowledge-obscuring karma,
perception-obscuring karma,
feeling-producing karma, deluding karma,
life-span-determining karma,
physique-determining karma,
status-determining karma, and
obstructing karma, impeding the path to bliss.
Explanation: According to their nature, karmas have been divided into eight classes. Nature of karma implies the type of influence a given karma may have on a living being. Karma that hinders the attainment of knowledge is called knowledge-obstructing karma. Karma that clouds the perception of a living being is perception-obscuring karma. Feeling-producing karma is responsible for our feelings of pain and pleasure. Deluding karma causes attachment and aversion and thereby beguiles our mental state. As the names imply, life-span-determining, physique-determining and status-determining karmas, respectively, establish longevity, physical form (body) and family of a living being. Obstructing karma prevents a soul from achieving its rightful goal.
Subclasses of knowledge-obstructing karma
NAANAAVARANAM PANCHAVIHAM SUYAM AABHINIBOHIYAM
OHINAANAM TAEEYAM MANANAANAM CHA KEVALAM |4|
Knowledge is of five kinds: sensory cognition, literal knowledge,
extraordinary knowledge, mental knowledge and
absolute knowledge; corresponding to these,
there are five subclasses of knowledge-obscuring karma.
Explanation: Most living beings acquire information about themselves and their environment through their senses. Such knowledge is called sensory cognition. The subclass of karma that limits this kind of knowledge is called sensory-cognition-obstructing karma. Knowledge is also obtained through written and spoken words. This is literal knowledge which is hindered by literal-knowledge-obstructing karma. In a similar manner, extraordinary-knowledge-obstructing karma obscures the ability of an individual to perceive objects and events in distant places and time. Mental-knowledge-obstructing karma prevents an individual from communicating mentally. Finally, absolute-knowledge-obstructing karma keeps one from attaining omniscience.4
Subclasses of perception-obstructing karma:
NIDDA TAHEV PAYALA NIDDAANIDDA YA PAYALAPAYALA YA
TATTO YA THEENAGIDDHI U PACHAMA HOI NAAYAVVA |5|
CHAKKHUMACHAKKHUOHISSA DANSANE KEVALE YA AAVARANE
AEVAM TU NAVAVIGAPPAM NAAYAVVAM DANSANAAVARANAM |6|
There are nine subclasses of perception-obscuring karma.
Five subclasses of perception-obstructing karma are
related to five kinds of sleep, namely, normal sleep, drowsiness,
deep sleep, intense drowsiness and deep-rooted sleep.
The remaining four subclasses of perception-obscuring karma
relate to perception through eyes, perception through other senses,
extrasensory perception and absolute perception.
(Absolute perception is attained through rationalism.)
Explanation: Sleep obstructs our perception. Thus there are five subclasses of sleep-related perception-obstructing karma corresponding to five kinds of sleep: normal sleep, drowsiness, deep sleep, intense drowsiness and deep-rooted sleep. In deep-rooted sleep, called STYAANAGRIDDHI in Sanskrit, a person can commit extraordinary deeds. The remaining four subclasses of perception-obscuring karma hinder perception through eyes, perception through other senses, extrasensory perception and absolute perception.
Subclasses of feeling-producing karma:
VEYANEEYAM PI YA DUVIHAM SAAYAMASAAYAM CHA AAHIYAM
SAAYASSA U BAHU BHEYA AEMEV ASAAYASSA VI |7|
Feeling-producing karma is divided into two subclasses:
pleasant- and unpleasant-feeling-producing karmas.
Pleasant-feeling-producing karma has many subtypes,
and so does unpleasant-feeling producing karma.
Subclasses of deluding karma:
MOHANIJJAM PI DUVIHAM DANSANE CHARANE TAHA
DANSANE TIVIHAM VUTTAM CHARANE DUVIHAM BHAVE |8|
Deluding karma is divided into two subclasses:
perception-deluding and conduct-deluding.
Perception-deluding karma is of three types
and conduct-deluding karma is of two types.
Explanation: Deluding karma does not let a worldly soul see things as they are. In other words, it prevents them from understanding the real nature of things. It keeps the worldly soul from having rationalism. Its two subclasses, perception-deluding and conduct-deluding, obscure rational perception and rational conduct, respectively.
Divisions of perception-deluding karma:
SAMMATTAM CHEV MICHCHHATAM SAMMAAMICHCHHATTAMEV YA
AEYAAO TINNI PAYADEEO MOHANIJJASSA DANSANE |9|
The three subtypes of perception-deluding karma are:
karma that deludes rational perception,
karma that is responsible for irrational perception,
and karma that generates mixed perception..
Explanation: Rational-perception-deluding karma generates blemishes in rational perception. A worldly soul under the influence of this karma does not inculcate pure rational perception. Irrational deluding karma does not let a worldly soul perceive reality. The individual does not accept the real nature of things. A worldly soul under the influence of mixed-perception-deluding karma at times is rational and perceives the real nature of things, and at other times, is irrational.
Divisions of conduct-deluding karma:
CHARITTAMOHANAM KAMMAM DUVIHAM TU VIYAAHIYAM
KASAAYAMOHANIJJAM TU NOKASAAYAM TAHEV YA |10|
Conduct deluding karma is said to be of two subtypes:
one subtype is conduct-deluding related to passions,
and the other, conduct-deluding related to pseudo-passions.
(These are detailed in the following couplet.)
Further divisions of conduct-deluding karma:
SOLASAVIHABHEAENAM KAMMAM TU KASAAYAJAM
SATTAVIHAM NAVAVIHAM VA KAMMAM NOKASAAYAJAM |11|
Sixteen varieties of passion-related conduct-deluding karma
refer to four types of passions, each having four gradations;
pseudo-passions have seven or nine varieties, and
so is pseudo-passion-related conduct-deluding karma.
Explanation: The four passions are anger, pride, intrigue and greed. Each one of these can have four gradations (degrees): ANANTAANUBANDHI (ingrained from limitless times, extremely intense, like a line drawn on stone) that leads to spiritual stupefaction, APRATYAAKHYAAN (less intense, like a line drawn on wood) that prevents adoption of partial vows (householder's conduct), PRATYAAKHYAAN (mild, like a line drawn in sand) that prevents adoption of total vows (monk's conduct), and SANJWALAN (very mild, like a line on water) that generates unconscious attachment to life in monks. Thus there are sixteen (four times four) varieties of passion-related conduct-deluding karma.
Pseudo-passions are mild. There are seven varieties of pseudo-passions. These are laughter (HAASYA), indulgence (RATI), disinterest (ARATI), sorrow (SHOKA), fear (BHAYA), disgust (JUGUPSA), and sexual orientation (VED). If male, female and mixed sexual orientations are considered separately, we get nine pseudo-passions. Thus there are seven or nine varieties of pseudo-passion-related conduct-deluding karma.
Subclasses of life-span-determining karma:
NERAIYATIRIKKHAAU MANUSSAU TAHEV YA
DEVAAUYAM CHAUTTHAM TU AUKAMMAM CHAUVVIHAM |12|
The subclasses of life-span-determining karma
relate to the four states of existence of worldly beings:
hellish - miserable and painful, subhuman -
plants, insects and animals, human and heavenly.
Subclasses of physique-determining karma:
NAAMAM KAMMAM TU DUVIHAM SUHAMASUHAM CHA AAHIYAM
SUHASSA U BAHU BHEYA AEMEV ASUHASSA VI |13|
Physique-determining karma has two subclasses:
one is responsible for the good features of body
and the other, for less than desirable bodily features.
Both subclasses have numerous varieties.
Subclasses of status-determining karma:
GOYAM KAMMAM DUVIHAM UCHCHAM NEEYAM CHA AAHIYAM
UCHCHAM ATTHAVIHAM HOI AEVAM NEEYAM PI AAHIYAM |14|
There are two subclasses of status-determining karma;
one subclass leads to a highly desirable status
and the other, to low status and lineage.
Each has been divided into eight gradations.
Subclasses of obstructing karma:
DAANE LAABHE YA BHOGE YA UVABHOGE VEERIAE TAHA
PANCHAVIHANTARAAYAM SAMAASEN VIYAAHIYAM |15|
Obstructing karma might keep a worldly being from
charity, benefit, direct delectations,
indirect delectations and the potential to achieve.
Evidently, for the most part, these relate to spiritual goal.
Explanation: It should be pointed out that obstructing karma is a soul-influencing (GHAATIYA) karma, while charity (DAAN), benefit (LAABH), direct delectations (BHOG), indirect delectations (UPABHOG) and potential (VEERYA) relate, for the most part, to materials. Jain scriptures state:5 The obstructing karma prevents a soul from attaining its full potential. However, it operates in conjunction with the three body-influencing karmas, namely, life-span-determining, physique-determining and status-determining karmas. Therefore, hindrance to charity (DAAN), benefit (LAABH), direct delectations (BHOG), indirect delectations (UPABHOG) and potential (VEERYA), which constitute the five subclasses of obstructing karma, essentially relate to spiritualism.
Footnotes:
1. The English adaptation is based on UTTARAADHYAYAN SUTRA, translation and commentary by Shri K. C. Lalwani, published by Prajnanam, Calcutta, 1977. Back up
2. For details, please see 'Studies in Jainism: Reader 2', published by the Jain Study Circle, 1997, Lesson 35. Scriptural View of the Jain Theory of Karma, pages 121-126.
Back up
3. Please see 'Quotations From Scriptures', Jain Study Circular, January 1998 and April 1998. Back up
4. For details about the five kinds of knowledge, please see 'Studies In Jainism: Reader 2', published by Jain Study Circle, 1997, page 24.
Back up
5. Please see 'Karmas: Their Classification And Interrelationships,' Jain Study Circular, April 1998, page 4.
Subclasses Of Karma
Selections from UTTARAADHYAYAN SUTRA1
Synopsis
There are four aspects of the bondage of karmic particles:2
1. Nature, kind or class, which describes the kind of effect the karmas may have on the living being
2. Quantity of karma particles
3. Duration for which the karma particles will remain associated with the soul
4. Intensity of fruition
According to their nature, karmas are categorized into eight classes:
Knowledge-obscuring, perception-obscuring, feeling-producing, deluding, life-span-determining, physique-determining, status-determining and obstructing.
In the January and April 1998 issues, the eight classes of karmas and their interrelationships were presented. Further, reasons for placing the eight types of karmas in the above sequence were discussed.
The Jain scriptures have described various subclasses of the eight types of karmas. The following quotations from UTTARAADHYAYAN SUTRA, Chapter 33, present these subclasses of karmas.
Karmas and their influence on soul:
ATTHA KAMMAAIM VOCHCHHAAMI AANUPUVVIM JAHAKKAMAM
JEHI BADDHO AYAM JEEVO SAMSAARE PARIVATTAE |1|
Describing eight main classes of karmas,
successively, in proper order;
a worldly soul, bound by these karmas,
suffers through cycles of birth and death.
Explanation: There are eight main classes of karmas. Their sequence, presented in the next two couplets, is determined by the manner in which they interact with soul.3 A worldly soul continually accumulates some karmas and sheds other karmas on account of its activities of body, speech and mind coupled with passions of anger, pride, intrigue and greed. These interactions between soul and karmas cause a worldly soul to suffer through cycles of birth and death.
Eight main classes of karmas:
NAANASSAAVARANIJJAM DANSANAAVARANAM TAHA
VEYANIJJAM TAHA MOHAM AAUKAMMAM TAHEV YA |2|
NAAMAKAMMAM CHA GOYAM CHA ANTARAAYAM TAHEV YA
EVAMEYAAI KAMMAAIM ATTHEV U SAMAASAO |3|
Eight main classes of karmas are:
knowledge-obscuring karma,
perception-obscuring karma,
feeling-producing karma, deluding karma,
life-span-determining karma,
physique-determining karma,
status-determining karma, and
obstructing karma, impeding the path to bliss.
Explanation: According to their nature, karmas have been divided into eight classes. Nature of karma implies the type of influence a given karma may have on a living being. Karma that hinders the attainment of knowledge is called knowledge-obstructing karma. Karma that clouds the perception of a living being is perception-obscuring karma. Feeling-producing karma is responsible for our feelings of pain and pleasure. Deluding karma causes attachment and aversion and thereby beguiles our mental state. As the names imply, life-span-determining, physique-determining and status-determining karmas, respectively, establish longevity, physical form (body) and family of a living being. Obstructing karma prevents a soul from achieving its rightful goal.
Subclasses of knowledge-obstructing karma
NAANAAVARANAM PANCHAVIHAM SUYAM AABHINIBOHIYAM
OHINAANAM TAEEYAM MANANAANAM CHA KEVALAM |4|
Knowledge is of five kinds: sensory cognition, literal knowledge,
extraordinary knowledge, mental knowledge and
absolute knowledge; corresponding to these,
there are five subclasses of knowledge-obscuring karma.
Explanation: Most living beings acquire information about themselves and their environment through their senses. Such knowledge is called sensory cognition. The subclass of karma that limits this kind of knowledge is called sensory-cognition-obstructing karma. Knowledge is also obtained through written and spoken words. This is literal knowledge which is hindered by literal-knowledge-obstructing karma. In a similar manner, extraordinary-knowledge-obstructing karma obscures the ability of an individual to perceive objects and events in distant places and time. Mental-knowledge-obstructing karma prevents an individual from communicating mentally. Finally, absolute-knowledge-obstructing karma keeps one from attaining omniscience.4
Subclasses of perception-obstructing karma:
NIDDA TAHEV PAYALA NIDDAANIDDA YA PAYALAPAYALA YA
TATTO YA THEENAGIDDHI U PACHAMA HOI NAAYAVVA |5|
CHAKKHUMACHAKKHUOHISSA DANSANE KEVALE YA AAVARANE
AEVAM TU NAVAVIGAPPAM NAAYAVVAM DANSANAAVARANAM |6|
There are nine subclasses of perception-obscuring karma.
Five subclasses of perception-obstructing karma are
related to five kinds of sleep, namely, normal sleep, drowsiness,
deep sleep, intense drowsiness and deep-rooted sleep.
The remaining four subclasses of perception-obscuring karma
relate to perception through eyes, perception through other senses,
extrasensory perception and absolute perception.
(Absolute perception is attained through rationalism.)
Explanation: Sleep obstructs our perception. Thus there are five subclasses of sleep-related perception-obstructing karma corresponding to five kinds of sleep: normal sleep, drowsiness, deep sleep, intense drowsiness and deep-rooted sleep. In deep-rooted sleep, called STYAANAGRIDDHI in Sanskrit, a person can commit extraordinary deeds. The remaining four subclasses of perception-obscuring karma hinder perception through eyes, perception through other senses, extrasensory perception and absolute perception.
Subclasses of feeling-producing karma:
VEYANEEYAM PI YA DUVIHAM SAAYAMASAAYAM CHA AAHIYAM
SAAYASSA U BAHU BHEYA AEMEV ASAAYASSA VI |7|
Feeling-producing karma is divided into two subclasses:
pleasant- and unpleasant-feeling-producing karmas.
Pleasant-feeling-producing karma has many subtypes,
and so does unpleasant-feeling producing karma.
Subclasses of deluding karma:
MOHANIJJAM PI DUVIHAM DANSANE CHARANE TAHA
DANSANE TIVIHAM VUTTAM CHARANE DUVIHAM BHAVE |8|
Deluding karma is divided into two subclasses:
perception-deluding and conduct-deluding.
Perception-deluding karma is of three types
and conduct-deluding karma is of two types.
Explanation: Deluding karma does not let a worldly soul see things as they are. In other words, it prevents them from understanding the real nature of things. It keeps the worldly soul from having rationalism. Its two subclasses, perception-deluding and conduct-deluding, obscure rational perception and rational conduct, respectively.
Divisions of perception-deluding karma:
SAMMATTAM CHEV MICHCHHATAM SAMMAAMICHCHHATTAMEV YA
AEYAAO TINNI PAYADEEO MOHANIJJASSA DANSANE |9|
The three subtypes of perception-deluding karma are:
karma that deludes rational perception,
karma that is responsible for irrational perception,
and karma that generates mixed perception..
Explanation: Rational-perception-deluding karma generates blemishes in rational perception. A worldly soul under the influence of this karma does not inculcate pure rational perception. Irrational deluding karma does not let a worldly soul perceive reality. The individual does not accept the real nature of things. A worldly soul under the influence of mixed-perception-deluding karma at times is rational and perceives the real nature of things, and at other times, is irrational.
Divisions of conduct-deluding karma:
CHARITTAMOHANAM KAMMAM DUVIHAM TU VIYAAHIYAM
KASAAYAMOHANIJJAM TU NOKASAAYAM TAHEV YA |10|
Conduct deluding karma is said to be of two subtypes:
one subtype is conduct-deluding related to passions,
and the other, conduct-deluding related to pseudo-passions.
(These are detailed in the following couplet.)
Further divisions of conduct-deluding karma:
SOLASAVIHABHEAENAM KAMMAM TU KASAAYAJAM
SATTAVIHAM NAVAVIHAM VA KAMMAM NOKASAAYAJAM |11|
Sixteen varieties of passion-related conduct-deluding karma
refer to four types of passions, each having four gradations;
pseudo-passions have seven or nine varieties, and
so is pseudo-passion-related conduct-deluding karma.
Explanation: The four passions are anger, pride, intrigue and greed. Each one of these can have four gradations (degrees): ANANTAANUBANDHI (ingrained from limitless times, extremely intense, like a line drawn on stone) that leads to spiritual stupefaction, APRATYAAKHYAAN (less intense, like a line drawn on wood) that prevents adoption of partial vows (householder's conduct), PRATYAAKHYAAN (mild, like a line drawn in sand) that prevents adoption of total vows (monk's conduct), and SANJWALAN (very mild, like a line on water) that generates unconscious attachment to life in monks. Thus there are sixteen (four times four) varieties of passion-related conduct-deluding karma.
Pseudo-passions are mild. There are seven varieties of pseudo-passions. These are laughter (HAASYA), indulgence (RATI), disinterest (ARATI), sorrow (SHOKA), fear (BHAYA), disgust (JUGUPSA), and sexual orientation (VED). If male, female and mixed sexual orientations are considered separately, we get nine pseudo-passions. Thus there are seven or nine varieties of pseudo-passion-related conduct-deluding karma.
Subclasses of life-span-determining karma:
NERAIYATIRIKKHAAU MANUSSAU TAHEV YA
DEVAAUYAM CHAUTTHAM TU AUKAMMAM CHAUVVIHAM |12|
The subclasses of life-span-determining karma
relate to the four states of existence of worldly beings:
hellish - miserable and painful, subhuman -
plants, insects and animals, human and heavenly.
Subclasses of physique-determining karma:
NAAMAM KAMMAM TU DUVIHAM SUHAMASUHAM CHA AAHIYAM
SUHASSA U BAHU BHEYA AEMEV ASUHASSA VI |13|
Physique-determining karma has two subclasses:
one is responsible for the good features of body
and the other, for less than desirable bodily features.
Both subclasses have numerous varieties.
Subclasses of status-determining karma:
GOYAM KAMMAM DUVIHAM UCHCHAM NEEYAM CHA AAHIYAM
UCHCHAM ATTHAVIHAM HOI AEVAM NEEYAM PI AAHIYAM |14|
There are two subclasses of status-determining karma;
one subclass leads to a highly desirable status
and the other, to low status and lineage.
Each has been divided into eight gradations.
Subclasses of obstructing karma:
DAANE LAABHE YA BHOGE YA UVABHOGE VEERIAE TAHA
PANCHAVIHANTARAAYAM SAMAASEN VIYAAHIYAM |15|
Obstructing karma might keep a worldly being from
charity, benefit, direct delectations,
indirect delectations and the potential to achieve.
Evidently, for the most part, these relate to spiritual goal.
Explanation: It should be pointed out that obstructing karma is a soul-influencing (GHAATIYA) karma, while charity (DAAN), benefit (LAABH), direct delectations (BHOG), indirect delectations (UPABHOG) and potential (VEERYA) relate, for the most part, to materials. Jain scriptures state:5 The obstructing karma prevents a soul from attaining its full potential. However, it operates in conjunction with the three body-influencing karmas, namely, life-span-determining, physique-determining and status-determining karmas. Therefore, hindrance to charity (DAAN), benefit (LAABH), direct delectations (BHOG), indirect delectations (UPABHOG) and potential (VEERYA), which constitute the five subclasses of obstructing karma, essentially relate to spiritualism.
Footnotes:
1. The English adaptation is based on UTTARAADHYAYAN SUTRA, translation and commentary by Shri K. C. Lalwani, published by Prajnanam, Calcutta, 1977. Back up
2. For details, please see 'Studies in Jainism: Reader 2', published by the Jain Study Circle, 1997, Lesson 35. Scriptural View of the Jain Theory of Karma, pages 121-126.
Back up
3. Please see 'Quotations From Scriptures', Jain Study Circular, January 1998 and April 1998. Back up
4. For details about the five kinds of knowledge, please see 'Studies In Jainism: Reader 2', published by Jain Study Circle, 1997, page 24.
Back up
5. Please see 'Karmas: Their Classification And Interrelationships,' Jain Study Circular, April 1998, page 4.
Wednesday, June 10, 2009
Practice Of Jainism In A Foreign Land
Religion & Society:
Practice Of Jainism In A Foreign Land
by Dr. Duli Chandra Jain
Sejal (16 years): Daddy, it was nice visiting the church and attending the Sunday school.
Father: Well, what did you like about your visit?
Sejal: Both, Anuj (11 years) and I learned many things about other religions.
Mother: What did you learn, Anuj?
Anuj: They said that God forgives our sins and rewards us if we pray to Him.
Father: Some religions ask people to have faith in such things. Sejal and Anuj, do you believe in these teachings?
Sejal: There seems to be no logic to support such ideas. If we do some good or bad things, how can God reward or punish or forgive us? If it were so, why does God make us do bad things in the first place?
Mother: We know that all living beings depend on each other for their survival. However, God is all-knowing, all-powerful. If God runs the universe then He should be able to prevent all bad things from happening to His creation.
Anuj: Mommy, Jainism says that God did not create the universe and that He does not run it. Other religions say something else. I do not know what to believe.
Mother: We have discussed this many times. Jainism says that we should believe in what makes sense.
Sejal: In that case, I would like to accept what modern science says.
Father: That is right. The moon revolves about the earth and the earth revolves about the sun according to the laws of nature. All other things and events follow the laws of nature.
Sejal: Daddy, doesn't Jainism say the same thing?
Father: Yes, certainly.
Anuj: Now I understand what Jainism teaches. Both, Jainism and modern science, say that the universe has been there for all times. It was not created. It runs according to the laws of nature. God did not create the universe and it does not run it. Thus there is no need to believe that God forgives our sins and rewards us for our good deeds.
Sejal: Shouldn't we Jains bring this 'truth' to all people of the world.
Mother: Anuj and Sejal, it is a well-known fact that people all over the world have faith in their respective religions. They believe that their holy books contain the absolute truth. Some believe that one's sins will be forgiven just by accepting their faith and that those who do not accept their beliefs will suffer for all times to come.
We do not have any argument with such people. However, in the zeal to make others accept their faith, various religious groups have committed untold violence on each other. We Jains believe in nonviolence and so we do not indulge in any effort to change others.
Anuj: Daddy, my friend David said that because I do not believe in his God, I will burn in fires of hell. But if I accept his religion, I will go to paradise. Is it right?
Father: Anuj and Sejal, Jainism is somewhat difficult religion to follow in this respect. We know that we are happy when we have good thoughts and feelings, and, we suffer when we have bad thoughts. We should keep our cool even when things do not go as we wish. Jainism is not a religion that forces us to be good for fear of bad things or for the temptation of nice things. We do not follow Jainism for fear of punishment in hell or for attaining good things like heaven. Jainism teaches us to accept responsibility for our thoughts, speech and actions. Our lives are what we think, what we say and what we do. We have to think, speak and act properly to improve our lives.
Anuj: Don't we practice the teachings of Jainism for obtaining good karmas?
Father: If we have good thoughts and feelings, we will naturally obtain good karmas.
Sejal: It is nice to have good thoughts and feelings. But, don't we still have to practice our religion? There is no Jain temple in our town. There is no Jain priest or minister here. How can we practice our religion?
Mother: We have our prayer room. I do prayers, worship and meditation everyday. All of you have seen that I never asked you to join me but you should feel free to do so. Sejal, perhaps your daddy can answer your question in detail.
Father: Sejal and Anuj, your mother is right. It will be good for us to pray, worship and learn more about Jainism. This discussion about the principles of Jainism is part of our religious practice. This is the first step in our practice of Jainism. A Jain temple and scholars will also help. We do not have these things. Still we can practice our religion. Jainism is a philosophy &endash; a unique concept. Accepting this concept is essential to practice Jainism.
Anuj: What is this concept?
Father: Not adopting any idea or practice or custom blindly is a basic teaching of Jainism. Accepting this concept is the second step in our religious practice.
Anuj: Daddy, how can that be?
Father: Jainism teaches us to think and examine everything carefully, and accept only what makes sense to us. We know that when we have good thoughts and feelings, we practice nonviolence towards ourselves, our family members, our friends and other people. Thus the true practice of religion is having good thoughts and feelings. We minimize violence towards other living beings as well. For this reason, we eat healthy vegetarian food. Practicing nonviolence in thought, word and deed is supreme religion. Adopting the five virtues of nonviolence, truth, non-stealing, purity of body and mind, and non-possessiveness with one's own free will is the next step in the practice of Jainism.
Anuj: Aren't the moral teachings of other religions similar to the five virtues taught by Jainism?
Father: Yes, but nobody commands Jains to practice these virtues. Further, we do not practice these virtues with blind faith or with a desire for material gains. We believe that practicing the five virtues brings happiness and peace in our lives. When we do not use our intelligence and do not think independently, we indulge in blind faith. A desire for material gains involves the passion of greed. Our thoughts and actions performed under coercion or on account of passions lead to physical and mental stress.
Sejal: Is that all?
Father: We also do not believe that any ritual can ward off danger, disease or misery. Things like danger, disease and failure are part of our worldly existence. We accept them calmly as facts of life. Understanding and believing in these ideas is also a practice of Jainism.
Sejal: Some people celebrate a mass or a worship. We Jains recite some prayers and perform certain worships. What is the difference?
Mother: There are very important differences between Jain religious practices and the rituals performed by followers of other religions. First, we Jains consider that practice of virtues is the most significant aspect of religion. Second, we do not practice religion for the sake of material goods and comforts. Lastly, Jain prayers and worships make us aware of the principles of Jainism. They also generate good thoughts and feelings.
Anuj: Daddy, what is the problem in adopting customs or practices that are commonly accepted by society? How can they affect our practice of Jainism?
Father: We Jains should not do things just because others do them or others prompt us to do them. We accept or reject a custom or practice to minimize physical and mental violence in our lives. We do things that help us in the practice of the five virtues of nonviolence, truth, non-stealing, purity of body and mind, and non-possessiveness. For example, everybody understands that divorce is bad for family, in general, and for children, in particular, but divorce is commonly accepted by society, Jains should realize that human nature is basically the same. So there should be understanding between individuals &endash; between husband and wife. At the time of marriage, the bride and groom make a commitment to each other. Keeping such commitment is part of our practice of the five virtues. So Jainism does not favor divorce. We should examine other customs and practices in a similar manner before adopting them.
Anuj & Sejal: Today we learned a lot about the basic teachings of Jainism. We should have such discussions more often.
Practice Of Jainism In A Foreign Land
by Dr. Duli Chandra Jain
Sejal (16 years): Daddy, it was nice visiting the church and attending the Sunday school.
Father: Well, what did you like about your visit?
Sejal: Both, Anuj (11 years) and I learned many things about other religions.
Mother: What did you learn, Anuj?
Anuj: They said that God forgives our sins and rewards us if we pray to Him.
Father: Some religions ask people to have faith in such things. Sejal and Anuj, do you believe in these teachings?
Sejal: There seems to be no logic to support such ideas. If we do some good or bad things, how can God reward or punish or forgive us? If it were so, why does God make us do bad things in the first place?
Mother: We know that all living beings depend on each other for their survival. However, God is all-knowing, all-powerful. If God runs the universe then He should be able to prevent all bad things from happening to His creation.
Anuj: Mommy, Jainism says that God did not create the universe and that He does not run it. Other religions say something else. I do not know what to believe.
Mother: We have discussed this many times. Jainism says that we should believe in what makes sense.
Sejal: In that case, I would like to accept what modern science says.
Father: That is right. The moon revolves about the earth and the earth revolves about the sun according to the laws of nature. All other things and events follow the laws of nature.
Sejal: Daddy, doesn't Jainism say the same thing?
Father: Yes, certainly.
Anuj: Now I understand what Jainism teaches. Both, Jainism and modern science, say that the universe has been there for all times. It was not created. It runs according to the laws of nature. God did not create the universe and it does not run it. Thus there is no need to believe that God forgives our sins and rewards us for our good deeds.
Sejal: Shouldn't we Jains bring this 'truth' to all people of the world.
Mother: Anuj and Sejal, it is a well-known fact that people all over the world have faith in their respective religions. They believe that their holy books contain the absolute truth. Some believe that one's sins will be forgiven just by accepting their faith and that those who do not accept their beliefs will suffer for all times to come.
We do not have any argument with such people. However, in the zeal to make others accept their faith, various religious groups have committed untold violence on each other. We Jains believe in nonviolence and so we do not indulge in any effort to change others.
Anuj: Daddy, my friend David said that because I do not believe in his God, I will burn in fires of hell. But if I accept his religion, I will go to paradise. Is it right?
Father: Anuj and Sejal, Jainism is somewhat difficult religion to follow in this respect. We know that we are happy when we have good thoughts and feelings, and, we suffer when we have bad thoughts. We should keep our cool even when things do not go as we wish. Jainism is not a religion that forces us to be good for fear of bad things or for the temptation of nice things. We do not follow Jainism for fear of punishment in hell or for attaining good things like heaven. Jainism teaches us to accept responsibility for our thoughts, speech and actions. Our lives are what we think, what we say and what we do. We have to think, speak and act properly to improve our lives.
Anuj: Don't we practice the teachings of Jainism for obtaining good karmas?
Father: If we have good thoughts and feelings, we will naturally obtain good karmas.
Sejal: It is nice to have good thoughts and feelings. But, don't we still have to practice our religion? There is no Jain temple in our town. There is no Jain priest or minister here. How can we practice our religion?
Mother: We have our prayer room. I do prayers, worship and meditation everyday. All of you have seen that I never asked you to join me but you should feel free to do so. Sejal, perhaps your daddy can answer your question in detail.
Father: Sejal and Anuj, your mother is right. It will be good for us to pray, worship and learn more about Jainism. This discussion about the principles of Jainism is part of our religious practice. This is the first step in our practice of Jainism. A Jain temple and scholars will also help. We do not have these things. Still we can practice our religion. Jainism is a philosophy &endash; a unique concept. Accepting this concept is essential to practice Jainism.
Anuj: What is this concept?
Father: Not adopting any idea or practice or custom blindly is a basic teaching of Jainism. Accepting this concept is the second step in our religious practice.
Anuj: Daddy, how can that be?
Father: Jainism teaches us to think and examine everything carefully, and accept only what makes sense to us. We know that when we have good thoughts and feelings, we practice nonviolence towards ourselves, our family members, our friends and other people. Thus the true practice of religion is having good thoughts and feelings. We minimize violence towards other living beings as well. For this reason, we eat healthy vegetarian food. Practicing nonviolence in thought, word and deed is supreme religion. Adopting the five virtues of nonviolence, truth, non-stealing, purity of body and mind, and non-possessiveness with one's own free will is the next step in the practice of Jainism.
Anuj: Aren't the moral teachings of other religions similar to the five virtues taught by Jainism?
Father: Yes, but nobody commands Jains to practice these virtues. Further, we do not practice these virtues with blind faith or with a desire for material gains. We believe that practicing the five virtues brings happiness and peace in our lives. When we do not use our intelligence and do not think independently, we indulge in blind faith. A desire for material gains involves the passion of greed. Our thoughts and actions performed under coercion or on account of passions lead to physical and mental stress.
Sejal: Is that all?
Father: We also do not believe that any ritual can ward off danger, disease or misery. Things like danger, disease and failure are part of our worldly existence. We accept them calmly as facts of life. Understanding and believing in these ideas is also a practice of Jainism.
Sejal: Some people celebrate a mass or a worship. We Jains recite some prayers and perform certain worships. What is the difference?
Mother: There are very important differences between Jain religious practices and the rituals performed by followers of other religions. First, we Jains consider that practice of virtues is the most significant aspect of religion. Second, we do not practice religion for the sake of material goods and comforts. Lastly, Jain prayers and worships make us aware of the principles of Jainism. They also generate good thoughts and feelings.
Anuj: Daddy, what is the problem in adopting customs or practices that are commonly accepted by society? How can they affect our practice of Jainism?
Father: We Jains should not do things just because others do them or others prompt us to do them. We accept or reject a custom or practice to minimize physical and mental violence in our lives. We do things that help us in the practice of the five virtues of nonviolence, truth, non-stealing, purity of body and mind, and non-possessiveness. For example, everybody understands that divorce is bad for family, in general, and for children, in particular, but divorce is commonly accepted by society, Jains should realize that human nature is basically the same. So there should be understanding between individuals &endash; between husband and wife. At the time of marriage, the bride and groom make a commitment to each other. Keeping such commitment is part of our practice of the five virtues. So Jainism does not favor divorce. We should examine other customs and practices in a similar manner before adopting them.
Anuj & Sejal: Today we learned a lot about the basic teachings of Jainism. We should have such discussions more often.
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